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Modern networks are not implemented as a single piece of software; that would render the task of dealing with multiple technologies and manufacturers virtually impossible. The solution for this problem is to structure computer networks as stacks of different protocols. A protocol can be seen as a "language" in which two entities (computers, routers, etc) communicate with each other. Typically, one protocol is created to solve a predetermined set of networking tasks, such as being able to send ?xed-length messages, or guaranteeing message order, etc. The capability of a protocol to solve these tasks makes it a "black box" that can be used by protocols on the level immediately above; similarly, the protocol itself can make use of the capabilities provided by the protocol on the level immediately below. Thus, all modern networks are implemented as a stack of abstractions, all of which are implemented as composable protocols; we say that the layer N provides services to layer N+1 and uses the services from layer N-1.
As an example, consider the stack presented in Figure in this example we show how the HTTP protocol (or, similarly, SMTP and ssh) can be implemented using the services provided by the TCP protocol. Also, the TCP protocol is implemented using the services of the IP layer, which itself uses the services provided by the Ethernet layer. Notice that one advantage of this type of architecture is that if we were to build a new functionality (say, wireless connections, instead of Ethernet), it would suf?ce for us to implement this new layer and to guarantee that it provides, to the IP level, the same services that were once provided by the Ethernet level. Nowhere would we need to care about the details of TCP, HTTP, or, for that matter, any of the top-level protocols.
What is Multitasking? Multitasking provides power to users by offering them to run multiple applications at once. The applications are loaded into memory and appear to the user
What OS''s are available in market as open source?
We will brie?y introduce paging to ?nish off this lecture. When a process is loaded, not all of the pages are immediately loaded, since it's possible that they will not all be need
Q. It is occasionally said that tape is a sequential-access medium whereas magnetic disk is a random-access medium. In fact the correctness of a storage device for random access d
mention the three problems that mat be caused by wrong initialization and placement of wait() and signal()operations in the use of semaphore
Explain Deadlock Every process in a set of processes is waiting for an event which only a process in the set can cause.
how is it possible
Explain the Alphabet and String A finite set of symbols is known as alphabet. An alphabet is frequently denoted by sigma, yet can be given any name. B = {0, 1} says B is an
advantages
Determine the reasons for Poor response time Process busy or High I/O rates or High paging rates
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