Reference no: EM133330247

Writing competency, or "written communication skill," is a fundamental learning outcome identified by institutions of higher education. Consequently, general education curricula often include programs such as first-year composition and writing across the curriculum/writing in the disciplines. Since notions of what it means to write have been complicated by socially grounded theories and digital media, these programs have also expanded to include more than just traditional essayistic literacy. Even in institutions that do not have designated writing programs, writing competency is still considered an important goal of undergraduate education. Although the focus on writing occurs primarily in the classroom, writing also plays a significant role in assessment beyond the classroom in composition placement, proficiency exams, and program reviews. Although many psychometricians consider indirect methods such as short-answer and/or multiple-choice exams to be appropriate for the assessment of writing, writing teachers prefer exams that require students to write (e.g., Broad, 2003; CCCC, 2014; Diederich, 1974; O'Neill et al., 2009). In this chapter, we focus exclusively on this latter type, so-called "direct writing assessment."We begin with the theory and research that informs writing assessment then review the related practices. Sampling or scoring methods should not be the driving force in designing writing assessments. Rather, assessment methods should be determined by language, linguistic, and sociolinguistic theories, as well as psychometric ones.Writing assessment theory draws on theories about writing, as well as educational measurement. Both of these perspectives influence the validity of writing assessment results because, as Messick (1989) explained, both empirical evidence and theoretical rationales are needed to make the "integrated evaluative judgment" necessary "to support the adequacy and appropriateness of inferences and actions based on test scores and modes of assessment" (1989, p. 5). Below we outline key theoretical frameworks that should be considered in writing assessments, and also review threats to validity and discuss emerging consensus and implications. We conclude with a look to ongoing debates and developing trends in writing assessment.Writing: A Socially Situated Cognitive ActivityWriting is a social and contextually bound activity. Gee explains that the meaning of all language depends on context, which includes ways of behaving, valuing, thinking, believing, speaking, reading, and writing (1996, p. viii). Although writing is often considered less context-bound than impromptu, spoken discourse, the meaning of written texts is still heavily influenced by the context-the time, place, writer, purpose, audience, topic, and other sociocultural factors. This rhetorical context influences what a writer produces and how audiences understand it. From emails and letters, to reports and memos, to essays and novels, experienced readers and writers understand that the context in which the text was produced-as well as read-informs the interpretation. Misreadings and misunderstandings highlight how this works.

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