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A) Describe how an osmotic gradient is established and maintained by the loop of Henle. Your answer should include a description of the differences between the three regions of the loop of Henle, how molecules are moving between them and the interstitial fluid, and how this affects the osmolarity of fluid inside and outside the loop.
B) Name one vertebrate group that has loops of Henle and one that does not.
C) What are the implications for urine concentration and water balance for animals that do not have loops of Henle?
D) Explain how the morphologies of mammalian kidneys differ between species that live in freshwater, mesic, and arid habitats.
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