Integrating Utility, Justice, Rights and Caring

So far, the chapter has outlined four main types of basic moral considerations:

1.   Utilitarian standards - must be used when we do not have the resources to attain everyone's objectives, so we are forced to consider the net social benefits and social costs consequent on the actions (or policies or institutions) by which we can attain these objectives.

2.   Standards of caring - indicate the kind of care that is owed to those with whom we have special concrete relationships. Standards of caring are essential when moral questions arise that involve persons embedded in a web of relationships, particularly persons with whom one has close relationships, especially those of dependency.

3.   Standards of justice - indicate how benefits and burdens should be distributed among the members of a group. These sorts of standards must be employed when evaluating actions whose distributive effects differ in important ways.

4.   Standards that specify how individuals must be treated - must be employed when our actions and policies will substantially affect the welfare and freedom of specifiable individuals. Moral reasoning of this type forces consideration of whether the behavior respects the basic rights of the individuals involved and whether the behavior is consistent with one's agreements and special duties.

One simple strategy for ensuring that all four types of considerations are incorporated into one's moral reasoning is to inquire systematically into the rights, justice, utility and caring involved in a given moral judgment, as in Fig. 2.1. One might in case, ask a series of questions about an action that one is considering:

(a) Will the action lead to a just distribution of benefits and burdens?

  (b) Is the action consistent with the moral rights of those whom it will affect?

(c) Does the action, as far as possible, maximize social benefits and minimize social injuries?  

(d) Does the action exhibit appropriate care for the well-being of those who are closely related to or dependent on oneself?

Unfortunately, there is not so far any comprehensive moral theory to show when one of these considerations should take precedence.