"Professional Practice and Ethics2Table of ContentsIntroduction ..................................................................................................................................... 31) Several Theories in Ethics .......................................................................................................... 3Utilitarianism .............................................................................................................................. 3Deontology .................................................................................................................................. 4Justice .......................................................................................................................................... 4Rights .......................................................................................................................................... 4Relativism ................................................................................................................................... 5Etiquettes..................................................................................................................................... 5Virtue .......................................................................................................................................... 52) Comparison between Moral Theories ......................................................................................... 63) ACS Professional Codes of Ethics ............................................................................................. 74) Establishment of Relationship between Professional Codes of Ethics and Practices withTheories........................................................................................................................................... 8Conclusion ...................................................................................................................................... 9References ..................................................................................................................................... 103IntroductionIn this information revolutionary world, one of the standards utilized for evaluating conduct isthrough measuring organizational ethics. As opined by Ayal et al.(2015), ethical conduct andbehavior provide a framework that helps in standardizing the attitudes and performances of theemployees. This framework can be utilized in modern technologies as well as to theprofessionals for maintaining moral conduct within organizations. The ethical aspects about ICT(Information and Communication Technology) rest on principle and are to be necessarilypractically implied in the organizations. Brakewood and Poldrack(2013) stated that with thedevelopment and progress of technology and communications, the employees should embracethe ethical codes of conduct to behave morally and with integrity. The organizations andindividuals should have a combined concept of values and ethics in their operating way. It notonly helps individuals and organizations to conduct fairly and morally but also helps in takingethical decisions within the organization for the benefit of all the internal and externalstakeholders. This assignment deals with several theories of ethics such as Utilitarianism, Deontology, Justice,Rights, Relativism, Etiquettes, and Virtue. Along with this, comparative studies between themoral theories are also discussed. In this context, the ACS codes of ethics along with theconnection between code and theories are also discussed vividly. 1) Several Theories in EthicsUtilitarianismAs stated by Carter and Lubinsky(2015), Utilitarianisms a normative ethical hypothesis thathelps in understanding the difference between right and wrong actions along with theconsequences related to the policy chosen. It denotes a superior moral action that an individualcan take for the maximizing happiness of responsive entities. This approach states that none ofthe actions and rules is fundamentally wrong or right. It, therefore, lies on the fact and principlethat promotes in achieving high levels of happiness and pleasure to the maximum number ofpeople. The principle of utility is based on the general rules or particular actions that help injudging the right or wrong doings(Dierksmeier et al. 2016).4DeontologyAccording to Frynas and Stephens (2015), deontology is a normative ethical theory that judgesthe morals and principles of the individuals „actions based on their adherence to regulations andrules. It emphasizes mainly on actions rather than consequences of those actions. Moreover,deontology ethics highlights the relationship between human duty and the morality attached tothe actions. Hammersley(2015)stated that as per Kant?s theory of deontological ethics, anindividual must act morally based on their assigned duty. He even said that it is the motive of aperson that helps in carrying out ethical activities rather than the consequences of it. A typicalexample can be cited from the relationship between the employer and employee where theirindividual moral and principles are judged through the iractions. JusticeAs opined by Hayek(2012), the ethical theory of justice is all about giving importance toequality, rights, and fairness. It is a reconciliation of impartiality and liberty applied to the basicstructure of an organization or individuals? life. Even more, justice should be abided bylaws,rules and regulatory principles that help in maximizing the good and moral activities.st Hwang(2015) stated that Rawls theory of justice is based on two principles. The 1 principlestates that every individual should enjoy equal rights to the maximum of other people. Thend 2 principle is based on the economic and social inequalities. These factors should be arranged insuch a way that organization should provide equal chances to everyone those qualify for theposition. RightsJenkin and Siegel(2015) commented that the ethical theory of rights states that a right is ajustified and necessary declaration on other individuals. Rights are independent aspects and arebased on certain standards of acknowledgment by the society. People acknowledge moral rightsthose are justified by certain standards and are not necessarily written down as law. These are thebasic principles and ethics in an individual?s life. It is a rightful act of an individual to respectother people?s dignity and self-esteem. No individual should interrogate into others „freedom ofchoosing anything for her or himself or their privacy. Rights are the fundamental and primarymoral behavior that often justifies welfare rights of the individuals(Jobber and Ellis-Chadwick,2012).5RelativismAccording to Kahn et al. (2014), ethical relativism theory states that morality and ethical valuesare the norms and standards of an individual?s culture. The individuals? right or wrong actionsare totally dependent on the norms and standards the society practices those. There is so suchbelief on absolute right or wrong but is about the moral judgments of the society. An individual?sbehavior is strongly dependent and is about his or her cultural norms and ethical practices. Thereare no such universal standards of moral but are the unwritten standards applicable to all thepeople of the world. With the difference and diversity in societies, moral values also differrelatively (Larson et al. 2014). EtiquettesLederman(2013) stated that etiquettes are the ethical code of behavior that defines the socialconduct of individuals as per contemporary standards and norms. It is a self-conscious procedurewhere individuals are obliged towards providing polite and polished behaviors to the otherindividuals. It is the unwritten but established soberness that an individual should have towardseach other. Lozano et al.(2015) had an opinion that every society has certain basic etiquettes thatindicate whether the behavior of the individuals complies with it or not. It also helps inindicating and differentiating between good and bad behavior. These are enforced through socialpolicing as well as through self-regulation. VirtuePadulo et al.(2013) commented that virtue ethics theory emphasizes on nature of qualities thoserelated to problems. Virtue is an honesty or generosity and is a positive trait that makes theconduct of individuals strong and effective. There are certain virtues like courage, temperance,liberty, patience, and truthfulness that an individual should have to conduct a methodical andsystematic life. It is a fundamental moral value that characterizes an individual greatly. Moraldevelopment and basic education regarding virtue ethics are important. The virtue ethics arequite stable, reliable as well as fixed that helps an individual in maintaining consistency in theiractivities (Plaisance, 2013).62) Comparison between Moral TheoriesTheories Advantages DisadvantagesRights Values are the ideas those are assigned to Rights given to individualsgroups and individuals having patterns can be negatively used.and boundary (Brakewood and Poldrack,2013).Virtues Virtues are a set of selected values those It doesn?t give that much ofconsidered to be good and desirablein importance and considerationgeneral. to individual process ofthinking (Ayal et al. 2015).Theories Advantages DisadvantagesRelativist In relativism, moral principles are Since it is dependent on anapplicableand may vary regarding individuals? relative thought, itculture and individuals; at this moment may not be applicable for thegiving independence to individuality.other individuals. It believes in no universal morals and It cannot be applied in alldoesn?t compare between ethical circumstances or situations. principles (Touboulic and Walker, 2015). It is applied to any situations irrespectiveof its right or wrong. Objectivist It believes in holding certain principles It is unable to account themoral values that are well applicable to diverse moral values as wellall individuals in general.as principles in variousIt believes in people having certain cultures and societies (Tricker,common moral principles as the basic 2015). human need."