"Introduction Organisations today are depending more on their human resources. Revolutionary changes,complex technologies and global competition mean increasing vulnerability. Organisations thatfail to have the right people in the right place at the right time are at risk. A proper matchbetween work and employee capabilities is now an economic necessity. Moreover, work itselfis in a state of constant fux as organisations downsize, outsource, restructure and re-engineertheir work processes, and introduce self-directed work teams and independent contractors togain a competitive advantage. Such workplace changes dramatically affect the work lives ofemployees. Organisations that change their existing strategies, or develop new business strat- egies, for example, need to reassess their structures. If there is a poor ft between the chosenstrategy and the organisation’s structure, the structure will need to be redesigned. This meansthat the arrangement of the organisation’s parts and the allocation of work will change. Themove from a tall, hierarchical structure to a fat structure involves eliminating layers of man - Span of control The number agement. This will produce wider spans of control, more delegation of responsibilities, increasedof subordinates directlyempowerment, decentralised decision making and new skill sets. reporting to a manager. Thus, changes in strategy affect not only how work is performed, but also the knowledge,skills, abilities and attitudes required by workers. Job restructuring, for example, may highlightgaps in the current skill levels of employees, calling for new recruitment, training and develop - ment, coaching, redeployment and outsourcing programs. This means that HR managers need agood understanding of work and how it is organised to ensure that the organisation’s strategicbusiness objectives are being supported and employee needs are being met. Job analysis andjob design provide the foundations for this knowledge. Job analysis Job analysis A systematic Job analysis is a basic HR activity because it focuses attention on the job content, the job require - investigation of the tasks,ments and the job context. It identifes what employees are expected to do. Knowledge about jobsduties and responsibilitiesand their requirements is collected through job analysis, which may be defned as the processof a job and the necessaryby which jobs are divided to determine what tasks, duties and responsibilities they include, theirknowledge, skills andrelationships to other jobs, the conditions under which work is performed, and the personalabilities a person needs tocapabilities required for satisfactory performance. Larger organisations may have HR specialistsperform the job adequately. called job analysts who undertake this systematic collection, evaluation and organisation of jobinformation. Smaller organisations usually make the task part of the HR manager’s job portfolio. Components of job analysis Job analysis provides information about three basic aspects of a job: 1. Job content describes the duties and responsibilities of the job in a manner that can rangefrom global statements to very detailed descriptions of tasks and procedural steps. 2. Job requirements identify the formal qualifcations, knowledge, skills, abilities and personalcharacteristics that employees need to perform the job in a particular situation or context. 3. Job context refers to situational and supporting information regarding the particularjob: its purpose; where it fts within the organisation; scope data (such as the magnitudeof fnancial, human or material resources managed); the availability of guidelines; thepotential consequences of error; the amount and closeness of supervision received orprovided; and the work setting (for example, outdoors, remote areas), cultural context (forexample, working in multicultural teams), physical demands (for example, exposure tohazards such as fumes and diseases) and working conditions (for example, ability to work2 under pressure, to travel overseas, to work alone or to work as a team member). Approaches to job analysis There are two basic approaches to job analysis: 1. a job-oriented (or task) approach 2. an employee-oriented (or behaviour) approach. Stone, R. J. (2013). <i>Managing human resources</i>. Retrieved from http://ebookcentral.proquest.com 164PART 2 Determining, attracting and selecting human resources Created from ballarat on 2017-11-09 20:13:41. Copyright © 2013. John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.d e n i a r t s i r e k r o J o W b a n a l y s t o b s e r v e The job-oriented approach is concerned with what gets done — that is, the tasks, duties and res- ponsibilities of the job (job content) (see fgure 5.1). The employee-oriented approach focuses onhow the job is done — that is, the human behaviour required to perform the job (job requirements).Job requirements (formal qualifcations, knowledge, skills, and abilities and personal character- istics) can be determined from a description of the job content, but not the other way around. Tasks, duties and responsibilities Every job is composed of tasks, duties and responsibilities. A job differs from a position, whichis a collection of tasks, duties and responsibilities performed by one person. A job may includemore than one position. For example, if a HR department has two training offcers, there are twopositions (one for each person), but just the one job of training offcer. A job is an organisationalunit of work. Responsibilities are obligations to perform accepted tasks and duties. A task is adistinct, identifable work activity — for example, asking questions of a job candidate. A dutyis composed of a number of tasks and constitutes a larger segment of work — for example,FIGURE 5.1 interviewing a job candidate. It should be noted that because tasks and duties both describeThe job-oriented approachactivities, it is not always easy (or necessary) to make a distinction between them. to job analysis Job analysis and job design FASTFACT Job information is gathered, analysed and recorded as the job exists, not as the job shouldAustralian professionalsexist. Industrial engineers, methods analysts or technical specialists initially structure work toworking as independentachieve the organisation’s strategic business objectives. Job analysis is normally conductedcontractors like their career3 after the job has been designed, the worker has been trained and the work has been performed.choice because of greaterThe organisation can then use the information generated via the written job descriptions (whatfreedom, more fexiblethe job entails) and job specifcations (what kind of people to hire for the job) in the design orhours and increased variety4 redesign of jobs (see fgure 5.2). of work. Job design Job analysis Job • Job description performance • Job specifcation FIGURE 5.2 The relationship betweenjob analysis and job design When to analyse a job Job analysis must keep up with job changes, but it is not possible to identify precisely howoften a job should be reviewed. Cherrington identifes three occasions when job analysis isgenerally undertaken: 1. when the organisation commences and the job analysis program is started 2. when a new job is created 3. when a job is changed signifcantly as a result of new methods, new procedures or new5 technology (for example, fight attendants on former low-cost US airline Song wereexpected, in addition to their standard duties, to be able to crack jokes, sing, dance and6 generally entertain passengers ). Stone, R. J. (2013). <i>Managing human resources</i>. Retrieved from http://ebookcentral.proquest.com CHAPTER 5 Job analysis, job design and quality of work life165 Created from ballarat on 2017-11-09 20:13:41. s w o r k e r d o i n g t h e j o b k c a b d e e F Copyright © 2013. John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.Indicators that a job analysis may be needed include: • no evidence of any job analysis ever having been done • a considerable period having passed since the last job analysis was undertaken • increasing employee grievances regarding job content and/or working conditions • disagreement between a supervisor and a job holder on the work to be performed • reorganisation, restructuring or downsizing that involves job changes or the creation ofnew jobs • changes in technology whereby new processes, machinery or equipment are introduced —hotel concierges, bellhops and housekeepers, for example, are now required to understandthe basics of broadband and wireless internet access, while hotel managers are expected to7 have additional IT troubleshooting skills • the replacement of long-serving employees who may have modifed a job to meet theirpersonal needs and abilities • the use of new sources of recruitment, leading to new employees who may have different8 expectations from those of people hired in the past. Figure 5.3 outlines the job analysis process. Job analysis objective The purpose of the job analysis is to collect information for: • Job description • Job specifcation • Job design • HR activities such as: • Recruitment• Selection. Type of information to be collected • What is performed? • Where is it performed? • How is it performed? • Why is it performed? • When is it performed? Sources of data Methods of data collection • Job incumbent • Observation • Supervisor • Interviews • Job analyst • Questionnaires • Experts • Diaries/logs • Records/fles/manuals • Critical incident reports • Plans and blueprints • HR information management systems Form of data analysis FIGURE 5.3 • Qualitative The job analysis process • Quantitative Stone, R. J. (2013). <i>Managing human resources</i>. Retrieved from http://ebookcentral.proquest.com 166PART 2 Determining, attracting and selecting human resources Created from ballarat on 2017-11-09 20:13:41. Copyright © 2013. John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.The uses of job analysis The information produced by job analysis is used extensively in HRM. ‘It is in fact’, saysIvancevich, ‘diffcult to imagine how an organisation could effectively hire, train, appraise, com - 9 pensate or use its human resources without the kinds of information derived from job analysis.’ A job description defnes what a job is by identifying its content, requirements and context. Job description A writtenstatement explaining theProviding a written summary of the duties and responsibilities of the job, job descriptions helppurpose of a job, whatmanagers and current and prospective employees to understand what the job is and how it isactivities are performed,to be performed. the conditions under which• Job specifcations focus on the knowledge, skills, abilities, personal characteristics andthey are accomplishedformal qualifcations that an employee must possess to perform the job successfully. and the performance• Job design identifes what work must be performed, how it will be performed, where it is tostandards required. be performed and who will perform it. Job analysis information is invaluable in determiningwhich tasks should be grouped together to form a job, and for structuring jobs so thatemployee satisfaction and performance can be enhanced. Job analysis information can help identify and clarify the organisational structure anddesign. By clarifying job requirements and the interrelationships among jobs, job content,tasks, duties and responsibilities can be specifed at all levels, thus promoting effciency by10 minimising overlap or duplication. HR planning involves having the right number of qualifed people in the right jobs at theright time. Job analysis information is essential for HR planning because it helps to accuratelydetermine the number and types of employees to be recruited or exited from the organisation. Job analysis information aids the recruitment process by identifying the job requirements andenabling HR managers to target their recruiting efforts and attract superior candidates. In addition,job analysis identifes irrelevant and/or inaccurate job information, thus facilitating more real - istic job previews (ensuring that job applicants receive pertinent positive and negative informationabout the job and that the organisation thus obtains a better matching of people and jobs). Job analysis information assists the selection process by identifying what formal qualif - cations, knowledge, skills, abilities and personal characteristics are required for satisfactoryperformance. This promotes the development of job-related selection criteria, or predictors. Theuse of suitable selection techniques ensures that EEO requirements are met and increases thelikelihood of a proper matching of an applicant with the job (see fgure 5.4). Collection of information about Job description what an employee does and what (work-related activities) constitutes satisfactory performance Identi\u001fcation of job-related knowledge, Job speci?cation skills, abilities, personal characteristics (human attributes) and formal quali\u001fcations Development of job-related application Selection techniques forms, interviews, employment tests, (predictors) intelligence tests etc. Use of performance appraisals and other job-related measures of Performance measures FIGURE 5.4 performance to measure the validity (validity) Job analysis and selection of selection techniques Effective job orientation requires a clear understanding of the work to be performed, which isexactly what job analysis provides. A new employee cannot be taught how to do a job properlyif job duties and responsibilities and performance standards are not clearly defned. Stone, R. J. (2013). <i>Managing human resources</i>. Retrieved from http://ebookcentral.proquest.com CHAPTER 5 Job analysis, job design and quality of work life167 Created from ballarat on 2017-11-09 20:13:41. Copyright © 2013. John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.Job analysis information is essential to the establishment of a performance assessmentsystem because it provides a thorough understanding of what the employee is supposed to do.Without this information, acceptable levels of performance cannot be determined and accuratemeasures of actual performance cannot be developed. Job analysis information is used to design and implement training and development pro- grams. The job specifcation defnes the knowledge, skills and abilities required for successfuljob performance. This allows the HR manager to establish training and development objectives,design programs and determine whether a current or potential employee requires training. HR managers are better placed to offer career planning and development guidance whenthey have a good understanding of the types of jobs existing in an organisation. Similarly, byidentifying jobs and job requirements, employees become aware of their career options andwhat constitutes a realistic career objective for them in the organisation. The job description is the foundation of job evaluation. It summarises the nature and require - ments of the job and permits its evaluation (or sizing) relative to other jobs. Once the relativeworth of a job has been determined, an appropriate level of pay and benefts can be established. Job analysis information helps create a healthy and safe working environment. Jobs withhazardous conditions, work methods or procedures can be identifed, and the work can beredesigned to eliminate or reduce exposure to health and safety hazards. Misunderstandings and disagreement among managers, employees and unions over jobDemarcation An exclusive content is a major source of grievance anddemarcation disputes. Job analysis informationright that restricts a specifcpromotes good industrial relations by providing a clear description of tasks, duties and respon- type of work to memberssibilities, and by identifying the formal qualifcations, knowledge, skills, abilities and personalof a particular union. Incharacteristics required to perform the job successfully. practice, it operates as aIncreasingly, HR managers face legal requirements prohibiting discriminatory HR practices,form of job protection. particularly in employment. Given that systematic job analysis can identify the critical elementsof a job (that is, the duties and responsibilities that must be performed) and the necessaryknowledge, skills, abilities and other personal characteristics required for successful job perfor - mance, it provides insurance that an organisation’s HR policies and practices are legally defen- sible and that job-related selection criteria will be employed (see fgure 5.5). Job analysis and legal compliance Identi\u001fes if a job is award Demonstrates that EEO Justi\u001fes pay differences protected or award free requirements are being met Ensures accurate and up-to-date Justi\u001fes job classi\u001fcation JOB ANALYSIS job information is given in theemployment interview Justi\u001fes the use of employment Identi\u001fes performance tests and selection techniques expectations • Job analysts should be trained • Job analysis methods must be • Logical • Understandable • Fully explained • Perceived as fair • Job data must be collected • Systematically using a structured approach • From more than one source • Job analysis must clearly detail • Job title • Work actually performed • Equipment used • Working environment • Performance requirements FIGURE 5.5 • Knowledge skills and abilities required • Formal quali\u001fcations and/or special licences required Job analysis and• Reporting and supervisory relationships legal complianceStone, R. J. (2013). <i>Managing human resources</i>. Retrieved from http://ebookcentral.proquest.com 168PART 2 Determining, attracting and selecting human resources Created from ballarat on 2017-11-09 20:13:41. Copyright © 2013. John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.Finally, job analysis is invaluable in establishing whether a person should be classifed as anemployee or as an independent contractor. This is critical because independent contractors haveno statutory rights regarding termination pay and benefts and annual or long service leave.Trade unions, in particular, will need to be convinced that the use of contract labour is appro- priate and not just an exploitative technique designed to reduce employment costs and unioninvolvement. Job analysis can highlight the distinction between an employee and a contractorby stating in the job description that the person is not part of the employer’s organisation buthas been hired to perform a specifc task or to produce a particular result. Furthermore, it canshow that the person will be expected to provide their own tools and equipment, can delegateor subcontract work to others, can determine their own hours of work, can work for otheremployers, and will be compensated by a charge or fee and not provided with a salary or ben- efts such as annual leave. DOCTOR Dear Dr HR HR Some of our employees are complaining that they have no job satisfaction. What do you suggest I do? Job descriptions A job description, or position description, is a written statement explaining why a job exists,what the job holder actually does, how they do it and under what conditions the job is per- formed (see the example in fgure 5.6). Job description Position: Vice-President, Human Resources, Asia–Pacifc Location: Hong Kong Division: Asia–Pacifc Incumbent: Y. Tanaka Department: Human Resources Job status: Exempt Job code: CAP-HRM-001 Reports to:President, Asia–Pacifc (Administrative), and Vice-President,Human Resources — Corporate (Functional) Written by: Monica Lim, Job Analyst Date: 2 April 2012 Approved by: J. A. Wong, President, Asia–Pacifc (Administrative Superior), W. J. Smith, Vice-President, Human Resources — Corporate (Functional Superior) Job objective Under the administrative direction of the president, Asia–Pacifc, and the functional guidanceof the vice-president, human resources — corporate, develop, recommend and implementapproved HRM strategies, policies and practices that will facilitate the achievement of thecompany’s stated business and HRM objectives. Duties and responsibilities •\t Develop and recommend HRM strategies, policies and practices that promote employeecommitment, competence, motivation and performance, and that facilitate the achievementof the Asia–Pacifc region’s business objectives. •\t Provide policy guidance to senior management regarding the acquisition, development,FIGURE 5.6 reward, maintenance and exit of the division’s human resources so as to promote the status ofGlobal Chemicals Ltdthe company as an ethical and preferred employer of choice. job description forvice-president, Humancontinued » Resources, Asia–Pacifc region Stone, R. J. (2013). <i>Managing human resources</i>. Retrieved from http://ebookcentral.proquest.com CHAPTER 5 Job analysis, job design and quality of work life169 Created from ballarat on 2017-11-09 20:13:41. Copyright © 2013. John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.•\t Identify, analyse and interpret for Asia–Pacifc regional senior management and corporateHR management those infuences and changes in the division’s internal and externalenvironment and their impact on HRM and divisional business objectives, strategies, policiesand practices. •\t Actively contribute as a member of the Asia–Pacifc board of directors to the development,implementation and achievement of the Asia–Pacifc region’s overall business objectives,strategies and plans. Relationships Internally, relate with senior line and functional managers within the Asia–Pacifc region andcorporate headquarters in New York. Externally, successfully relate with senior academic,business, government and trade union personnel. Directly supervise the following positions:manager, remuneration and benefts, Asia–Pacifc; manager, human resources development,Asia–Pacifc; manager, industrial relations, Asia–Pacifc; and manager, recruitment and selection,Asia–Pacifc. Functionally supervise the HR managers in 13 geographic locations within the Asia–Pacifc region. Knowledge University degree is required (MBA desirable), along with seven to 10 years broad-based HRMexperience in a competitive and international (preferably Asian) business environment. A proventrack record in managing change is necessary. Fluency in English is essential. Some competencyin Chinese or Japanese is desirable. Excellent human relations, communication and negotiatingskills are critical. Previous experience in a line management role in marketing, fnance ormanufacturing is preferable. Computer literacy and experience with HRIMS are essential. Must beable to positively represent the company at the most senior levels and to actively contribute as adirector of the Asia–Pacifc regional board. Problem solving Diverse cultures and varying stages of economic development within the Asia–Pacifc regioncreate a unique and demanding business environment. The incumbent will often face complexHR and business problems demanding solutions that need to be creative, ethical and, at thesame time, sensitive to local and company requirements. Authority This position has the authority to: •\t approve expenditures on budgeted capital items up to a total value of US$250000 in any one fnancial year •\t hire and fre subordinate personnel in accord with company policies and procedures •\t approve expense accounts for subordinate personnel in accord with company policies andprocedures •\t authorise all non-capital item expenditures within the approved budgetary limit •\t exercise line authority over all direct reporting positions. Accountability Employees: 3000. HR personnel: 82 (Asia–Pacifc region). Sales: US$4 billion. Direct budgetresponsibility: US$4.7 million. Assets controlled: US$1.8 million. Locations: Australia, China,Hong Kong, India, Indonesia, Japan, South Korea, Malaysia, New Zealand, the Philippines,Singapore, Taiwan, Thailand. Special circumstances Successful performance requires the incumbent to work long hours, to travel extensively(50–60 per cent of the time), to quickly adapt to different cultures and business conditions, tosuccessfully handle high-stress situations and to constantly work under pressure in a complex andFIGURE 5.6 very competitive business environment. (continued) Stone, R. J. (2013). <i>Managing human resources</i>. Retrieved from http://ebookcentral.proquest.com 170PART 2 Determining, attracting and selecting human resources Created from ballarat on 2017-11-09 20:13:41. Copyright © 2013. John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.Other It is important that the incumbent has the potential (and fexibility) to move to a senior linemanagement position in either Europe or the United States on the successful completion of thisassignment. Performance indicators Performance indicators will include both quantitative and qualitative measures as agreed bythe president, Asia–Pacifc division, the vice-president, human resources — corporate and theincumbent. Indicators may be market based (for example, share price improvement), businessbased (for example, division proftability, budget control, days lost through industrial unrest,positive changes in employee commitment, job satisfaction and motivation) and individualbased (for example, performance as a leader and manager as assessed by superiors, peersand subordinates). Performance expectations and performance indicators generally will bedefned and agreed on an annual basis. A formal 360-degree performance appraisal will beFIGURE 5.6 conducted once a year. (continued) There is no standard format used for preparing a job description; the format, in fact, dependson managerial preference and how the job description will be used. Most job descriptions,however, contain information on: • job identifcation • authority • job objective • accountability • duties and responsibilities • special circumstances • relationships • performance standards • knowledge • trade union membership 11 • problem solving • other requirements. Components of job descriptions 1. Job identifcation The job identifcation section locates the job in the organisational structure. It includes infor- mation on the employee’s job title, department and reporting relationships. The job title shouldbe descriptive, meaningful and consistent with comparable positions in the organisation. A titlethat accurately identifes a job is valuable for: • providing employee information and fostering self-esteem • identifying job relationships 12 • comparing the position with similar jobs in other organisations. Additional information can include the job code, the job status (exempt/non-exempt, full- time/part-time/casual), the job grade or points, the pay range, the date written, the name ofwhoever wrote the job description, and the name and position of the person approving thedescription. 2. Job objective The job objective describes in a nutshell why the job exists — that is, the primary purposeor objective of the position. Ideally, it should describe the essence of the job in 25 wordsor less. 3. Duties and responsibilities This section includes a listing of the major job duties and responsibilities. It is the heart ofthe job description and should indicate clearly and specifcally what the employee must do.Given rapid change, the need for improved performance, greater fexibility and multiskilling,and use of teams, duties and responsibilities are increasingly being expressed as performancestandards (or key results or desired outcomes) derived from the organisation’s strategic businessobjectives. Stone, R. J. (2013). <i>Managing human resources</i>. Retrieved from http://ebookcentral.proquest.com CHAPTER 5 Job analysis, job design and quality of work life171 Created from ballarat on 2017-11-09 20:13:41. Copyright © 2013. John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.Six to eight statements of key duties and responsibilities are more than enough to describemost jobs. A common mistake in this section is to list every task, duty and responsibilityregardless of importance. A task or duty that is performed frequently is not necessarily signif - cant in achieving the job’s objectives. A major duty and responsibility is one of such impor- tance that non-performance or substandard performance will signifcantly affect the required13 results and demand remedial action by management. Job holders, in particular, are especiallyprone to padding job descriptions when they know they are being used for job evaluation pur- poses. Thus, it is essential that these statements be clear and concise and give an accurate wordpicture of the major duties and responsibilities encompassed by the job. They are best expressedas a list of results that the job is designed to achieve so that job performance can be measuredobjectively. 4. Relationships This section identifes the relationships with other positions (within and external to theorganisation) that are necessary for satisfactory job performance — for example, what pos - itions report directly to this job? What are the job’s most frequent contacts within the organ- isation? What are the job’s most frequent and important contacts outside the organisation?For example, a HR manager may have interactions with trade union offcials, employerassociation representatives, university academics, management consultants and governmentoffcials. 5. Knowledge The knowledge section is concerned with the minimum levels of knowledge, skills, abili- ties, experience and formal qualifcations required to do the job — for example, what are theminimum academic qualifcations required? What computer skills are essential? How muchand what type of experience is needed to perform the job successfully? What language skillsare necessary? 6. Problem solving This section identifes the amount of original thinking required in decision making and theenvironment in which problem solving takes place — for example, does the job require simple,routine and repetitive solutions or complex, varied and creative solutions? Is the decision- making environment stable or dynamic? For example, is business competition nonexistentor cutthroat? Are there clear policies and guidelines to follow? Do decisions have to be madeunder pressure and with insuffcient information? 7. Authority This identifes the specifc rights and limitations that apply to the position’s decision-makingauthority. In other words, the freedom to act — for example, what decisions can be madewithout reference to a superior? What decisions must be referred to a superior? Does the pos - ition have the right to hire and fre? Give a pay increase? What specifc dollar limits exist ondecision-making authority? For example, can the incumbent spend up to $500 without refer- ence to a superior? 8. Accountability Accountability details the fnancial impact of the job by identifying the quantity and value ofassets, budgets, sales, payroll and personnel (both number and type, for example, professional,managerial, semiskilled and so on) for which the job is accountable. It measures the answer- ability for actions taken on the job. 9. Special circumstances This section is concerned with what is special, unusual or hazardous about the position and/ or the environment in which the job is performed (for example, dirty, dusty, dangerous, highpressure, long and/or irregular hours). Stone, R. J. (2013). <i>Managing human resources</i>. Retrieved from http://ebookcentral.proquest.com 172PART 2 Determining, attracting and selecting human resources Created from ballarat on 2017-11-09 20:13:41. Copyright © 2013. John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.10. Performance standards This section identifes (a) the standards required for effective performance and (b) themeasures for evaluating performance. It identifes what is expected to be achieved, how thejob holder is expected to behave (for example, to be ethical, to be a team player) and howperformance will be measured (for example, by results — sales volume, production output,proftability; by behaviour — team player, customer service orientation; and/or by personalcharacteristics — communication and interpersonal skills, creativity, aggressiveness, loyaltyand so on). 11. Trade union/professional associations This section identifes any professional association or trade union membership required. 12. Licences This section highlights any special licences, permits or registrations required (for example, alicence to practise psychology or medicine, or to repair electrical equipment). Job description guidelines Although the style and format of job descriptions are largely determined by their use andorganisational preference, there are some standard guidelines for writing effective jobdescriptions: • List duties and responsibilities in a logical sequence. • State separate duties and responsibilities clearly, simply and concisely. • Begin each sentence with an action verb. • Use quantitative terms where possible to achieve greater objectivity and clarity. • Use specifc rather than vague terms. • Use standardised terminology. • Answer the questions of how, what, when and why. This will help produce a complete jobdescription. • Clearly identify the end results or standards on which performance will be evaluated. Clarity and simplicity of expression are prerequisites for job descriptions and specifcations.If job descriptions are to be read, understood and accepted by all levels of employees, they mustbe concise and written in plain and simple English. DOCTOR Dear Dr HR HR I have heard that fexible work arrangements (such as job sharing) can be a powerful retentionand motivational tool, but can also involve extra costs and management objections. Whatare the advantages and disadvantages, and how should we go about implementing a fexiblework program? Job specifications The job specification, or person specifcation, is derived from the job description. It identifes Job specification A writtenstatement of the formalthe experience, education, knowledge, skills, abilities, personal characteristics and specialqualifcations, knowledge,requirements needed to perform the job successfully. The job specifcation is an essentialskills, abilities and personalpart of the employment process because it identifes in job-related terms what kind of can - characteristics a persondidates need to be recruited and how they should be assessed. It should be noted that someneeds to perform a givenjob specifcations identify not only the essential criteria required to perform a job success - job successfully. fully, but also those criteria deemed as desirable. In this case, care must be exercised toensure that preconceived attitudes or prejudices do not lead to the inclusion of discrimi- natory criteria which are not job related. The job specifcation may be incorporated intothe job description form or documented separately. A sample job specifcation is shownin  fgure 5.7. Stone, R. J. (2013). <i>Managing human resources</i>. Retrieved from http://ebookcentral.proquest.com CHAPTER 5 Job analysis, job design and quality of work life173 Created from ballarat on 2017-11-09 20:13:41. Copyright © 2013. John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved."