"Running Head: CELLULAR RESPIRATION AND PHOTOSYNTHESISCellular respiration and photosynthesisNameCourseDate CELLULAR RESPIRATION AND PHOTOSYNTHESISIt is true that cellular respiration together with photosynthesis forms a crucial cycle of energy aswell as matter which supports the continued existence of life on earth. Cellular respiration is theprocess of any cell catabolism where cells tend to turn food into utilizable energy in the form ofadenosine triphosphate (ATP) and also release waste products (Brown, 2005). Photosynthesis, onthe other hand, is the process where plants, as well as a majority of the Bacteria together withsome Protistans, utilize the energy from the sun to give out glucose from carbon dioxide andwater. The glucose that is produced has the possibility of being converted into a substanceknown as Pyruvate that releases Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) by cellular respiration. Duringcellular respiration, oxygen is also given out. Cellular respirations together with photosynthesis are crucial in the constant cycle of energy tosustain a life together with defining it. Both of these processes have numerous stages where thecreation of energy takes place and have different relationships with the organelles which arelocated in the eukaryotic cell. Cellular respiration and photosynthesis are vital in the way lifeevolved as well as how it became diverse according to our knowledge. Despite the fact thatcellular respiration and photosynthesis have different processes, they are interdependent inexhibiting the complementary cycles. Cellular respiration is involved with the burning of glucoseto give out energy (Brown, 2005). Nevertheless, the energy is not light or extreme heat. Theenergy that is produced is used in the formation of ATP molecules. Steps of Cellular Respiration Throughout cellular respiration, a glucose particle is broken down to form carbon dioxide andwater. C6H12O6 + 6O2 ? 6CO2 + 6H2O + Chemical Energy (in ATP). All through the way,some ATP is produced directly in the reactions which convert glucose. More ATP is however CELLULAR RESPIRATION AND PHOTOSYNTHESISgiven out later in the cellular respiration step called oxidative phosphorylation. Oxidativephosphorylation is powered by electrons movement via the electron transport chain as well asseries of proteins which are embedded in the inner membrane of the Mitochondrion ("CellularRespiration", n.d.). The electrons come in an original way from glucose, and they are moved tothe electron transport chain by the electron carriers referred to as NAD+and FAD that eventuallybecomes NADH as well as FADH2 during gaining of electrons.The four stages of cellular respiration are;Glycolysis- During this stage, glucose which is a six carbon sugar goes through several chemicalreactions and in the end it is converted into two molecules of pyruvate as well as three-organiccarbon molecules. During this reaction, ATP is formed, and NAD+ is converted to NADH. Thisprocess takes place in the cytoplasmic fluid. Pyruvate Oxidation- During this stage, each pyruvate from glycolysis goes to the mitochondrialmatrix which is the innermost part of the mitochondria. In the mitochondrial matrix, pyruvate isconverted into a two carbon molecule which is bound to Coenzyme A, and it is called acetylCoA. Carob dioxide is then released to the environment and NADH is given out.Citric acid cycle- The acetyl CoA that is made in the pyruvate oxidation stage undergoescombination with the four carbon molecule and then undergoes a series of reactions hence givingout a four carbon starting molecule. ATP, as well as NADH together with FADH2, are generatedand carbon dioxide released to the surrounding.Oxidative Phosphorylation- The NADH, as well as FADH2 that were produced deposit theirelectrons in the electron transport chain and them, then turn back into their empty forms whichare NAD+ and FADH2. While electrons move down the electron chain, energy tends to be given CELLULAR RESPIRATION AND PHOTOSYNTHESISout which are used to pump protons out of the mitochondrial matrix thus forming a gradient. Theprotons then flow back into the matrix via an enzyme known as ATP synthase hence formingATP. During the end of the electron transport chain, oxygen accepts electrons as well as takes upelectrons forming water.Glycolysis has the possibility of taking place without the involvement of oxygen, and thisprocess is referred to as fermentation (REID, 1941). The other stages which are pyruvateoxidation, citric acid cycle as well as oxidative phosphorylation need the presence of oxygen forthem to take place. Only oxidative phosphorylation utilizes oxygen in a direct way, but the othersteps cannot take place without oxidative phosphorylation. Steps of PhotosynthesisThe process of photosynthesis is similar to cellular respiration, and it involves a process utilizedby plants where energy from sunlight is used for the conversion of carbon dioxide as well aswater into molecules which are required for growth. The molecules include sugars as well asenzymes together with chlorophyll. Light energy is normally absorbed by the green chemicalknown as chlorophyll, and the energy allows glucose to be produced, and oxygen is produced asa waste product. 6CO2+ 6H2O - C6H12O6 + 6O2Photosynthesis takes place in plants as well as algae together with some bacteria. It occurs inchloroplasts which are organelles of the leaf ("Chemistry for Biologists: Photosynthesis", n.d.).The chloroplasts can absorb light. The leaf has tiny pores called stomata where carbon dioxidecan enter as well as oxygen can leave the leaf, and this is a reverse process which is evident inanimals. Just like cellular respiration, photosynthesis as a process requires water which isabsorbed via the plant roots as well as carried up the leaves.CELLULAR RESPIRATION AND PHOTOSYNTHESISPhotosynthesis has two stages;Light reactionThis stage takes place in the thylakoid membrane. During this stage, chlorophyll together withsome other accessory pigments like beta-carotene is structured in groups in the thylakoidmembrane known as photosystems. Photosystems are two, photosystem I and photosystem II.The chlorophyll molecules together with antenna chlorophyll molecules absorb sunlight as wellas pass it on the reaction center which is the chlorophyll molecule which has the possibility ofabsorbing light. In Photosystem II the reaction center is known as p680 while it is p700 inphotosystem I. During this light reaction, energy from the sun is harnessed in the membranes ofthe chlorophyll and then transformed chemically into ATP and electron carries NADPH. Wateris then divided after the electrons are removed from NADP+ that creates NADPH and oxygen isthen released in a gaseous form ("Chemistry for Biologists: Photosynthesis", n.d.). During thisreaction, 12 NADPH and 18 ATP molecules are formed, and they are used in the dark reaction. Dark reactionIt takes place in the stroma of the chloroplast. It is called the Calvin cycle because it wasdiscovered by Calvin Melvin together with his co-workers. There are three phases in thisreaction which are; Carboxylation of Ribulose 1,5 biphosphate (RuBP), reduction as well as theregeneration of RuBP. During carboxylation, six molecules of carbon dioxide combine with sixmolecules of RuBP, and it forms six molecules of six carbon intermediate. The six carbonintermediate instantly split into two particles of3 carbon intermediate referred to as 3-phosphoglycerate that is converted into glyceraldehyde three phosphate. The glyceraldehyde 3phosphate particles are converted to form 3 molecules of fructose six phosphates where two are CELLULAR RESPIRATION AND PHOTOSYNTHESISused for regeneration of Ribulose 1,5 biphosphate and one fructose six phosphates is convertedinto glucose ("Chemistry for Biologists: Photosynthesis", n.d.).How each process is linked to specific organellesCellular respiration, as well as photosynthesis, relies on important organelles in the eukaryoticcell so as to complete their tasks. There happen to be distinctions concerning the way the livingcreatures together with plants as well as fungi go about in obtaining their energy and hence adoptthe use of various organelles which are located in the eukaryotic cells. For instance, despite thefact that the mitochondria are the place where pyruvate enter so as to start cellular respiration forthe obtaining of energy, there is a possibility of being perceived that plants have no need ofpossessing the mitochondria because their conversion from light to energy is carried out viaphotosynthesis with chlorophyll (Volkov, 2004). Because the majority of the creatures are notable to undergo the chemical process of photosynthesis, plants tend to exhibit both of theprocesses at the same time.Importance and significance of these processes and their cyclic interactionThese two processes are interconnected because they both produce energy which is used byplants and they recycle each other's waste for usage. Human and animals inhale oxygen so as tokeep their cells alive and via cellular respiration, they exhale carbon dioxide. The glucosetogether with oxygen produced during photosynthesis is used during respiration. The carbondioxide released during respiration is used during photosynthesis (Volkov, 2004).During thetime that life evolved on earth, all organisms were heterotrophs, and steadily, several organismsadopted the autotrophic mode of nutrition hence turning out to be photosynthetic. The earth'satmosphere did not have oxygen initially, but with the starting of photosynthesis, the earth's "